Bomb blast effects

Air-fuel expositions
It is a-

Conventional blasts
Tovex (also known as Trenchrite, Seismogel, and Seismopac) is a water-gel explosive composed of ammonium nitrate and methylammonium nitrate that has several advantages over traditional dynamite, including lower toxicity and safer manufacture, transport, and storage. It has thus almost entirely replaced dynamite. There are numerous versions ranging from shearing charges to aluminized common blasting agents. Tovex is used by 80% of international oil companies for seismic exploration. Torvex is 0.80% as effective as TNT.

C-4 or Composition C-4 is a common variety of the plastic explosive family known as Composition C. The British version of the explosive is known as PE-4 (Plastic Explosive). C-4 is composed of explosives, plastic binder, plasticizer to make it malleable, and usually a marker or odorizing taggant chemical.

C-4 has a texture similar to modeling clay and can be molded into any desired shape. C-4 is stable and an explosion can only be initiated by the combination of extreme heat and shock wave from a detonator. C-4 is 1.34 times as effective as TNT.

Semtex is a general-purpose plastic explosive containing RDX and PETN. It is used in commercial blasting, demolition, and in certain military applications. Semtex became notoriously popular with terrorists because it was, until recently, extremely difficult to detect, as in the case of Pan Am Flight 103. Semtex is 1.35 times as effective as TNT.

For its original military use it was manufactured under the name B 1. It has been manufactured in Czechoslovakia under its current name since 1964, labeled as SEMTEX 1A, since 1967 as SEMTEX H and since 1987 as SEMTEX 10.

The composition of the two most common variants differ according to their use. The 1A (or 10) variant is used for blasting, and is based mostly on crystalline PETN. The version 1AP and 2P are formed as hexagonal booster charges; a special assembly of PETN and wax inside the charge assures high reliability for detonating cord or detonator. The H (or SE) variant is intended for explosion hardening.

Cyclotol is an explosive consisting of castable mixtures of RDX and TNT. It is related to the more common Composition B, which is roughly 60% RDX and 40% TNT; various compositions of Cyclotol contain from 65% to 80% RDX.

Typical ranges are from 60/40 to 80/20 RDX/TNT, with the most common being 70/30, while the military mostly uses 77/23 optimized in warheads.

Cyclotol is not commonly used, but was reportedly the main explosive used in at least some models of US Nuclear weapon. Sublette lists Cyclotol as the explosive in the US B28 nuclear bomb and possibly related weapons that used the common Python primary - W34, W28, W40, and W49.

It was also used in the B53 nuclear bomb and associated W53 warhead. In a modern military industry last 20 years Cyclotol can be used as filler and main charge most of cluster submunition, especially with a piezoelectric crystal igniter.

A polymer-bonded explosive, also called PBX or plastic-bonded explosive, is an explosive material in which explosive powder is bound together in a matrix using small quantities (typically 5–10% by weight) of a synthetic polymer. PBXs are normally used for explosive materials that are not easily melted into a casting, or are otherwise difficult to form. PBX was first developed in 1952 in Los Alamos National Laboratory, as RDX embedded in polystyrene with dioctyl phthalate plasticizer. HMX compositions with teflon-based binders were developed in 1960s and 1970s for gun shells and for Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) seismic experiments, although the latter experiments are usually cited as using hexanitrostilbene (HNS).

Cyclotol, Tovex, PBX, C-4 and Semtex now came in to use. It was at this time that Kt and Mt came in to usage.

C-4 is 1.34 times as effective as TNT, Semtex is 1.35 times as effective as TNT and Torvex is 0.80% as effective as TNT.

An average IRA special issue 'spectacular' bomb of the mid to late 1980s used to destroy entire RUC\Army installations in 1 blast was on average had a blast of ~2 tonnes. It was made of high explosive which was most often made of ammonia based fertilizer and\or Semtex.

The ton equivalent (now 'blast ton', 'explosive ton', 'TNT ton', 'ton of TNT', 'ton blast', 'ton explosion' just 'ton') is also used as a way of estimating the blast form IEDs, terrorist devices and accidental industrial explosions.

IMX-101 is now becoming more common place in the USA and in time the rest of NATOs nations.

Atomic blasts


A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission, nuclear fusion or a multistage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a pure fusion weapon remains a hypothetical device.

Atmospheric nuclear explosions are associated with mushroom clouds, although mushroom clouds can occur with large chemical explosions, and it is possible to have an air-burst nuclear explosion without these cloud's Nuclear explosions produce radiation and radioactive debris.

Any nuclear explosion (or nuclear war) would have wide-ranging, long-term, catastrophic effects, that could threaten the survival of humankind. Radioactive contamination would cause genetic mutations and cancer across many generations.

The explosions caused by nukes were Inevitably to be measured in the much greater megaton and kiloton range due to their massive blasts.


 * Example: Mk-54 (Davy Crockett) – 10 or 20 tons (AKA: 0.010 kilotons or 0.020 kilotons) yield, Davy Crockett artillery warhead.
 * Example: Mk-54 (SADM) – approximate yield from 10 tons to 1 kiloton, Special Atomic Demolition Munition device.
 * Example: W48 was an American nuclear artillery shell – 72 tons of TNT (0.072 kiloton).
 * Example: Pluton missile– 15 or 25 kilotons.
 * Example: Little Boy bomb– ~16 kilotons.
 * Example: Operation Buster test blast– 21 kilotons.
 * Example: 3x W58 warhead in the UGM-27 Polaris– 200 kilotons for each one.
 * Example: R-12 (SS-4 Sandal)- 2.3 megatons
 * Example: Ivy Mike test blast – 10.4 megatons.

The blast power per lb comparison list!

 * Bang goes the tonnage!

The bomb blast comparison list!

 * Bombs away!

Shock waves and over-pressure effects
Explosive shock waves can cause situations such as body displacement (i.e., people being thrown through the air), dismemberment, internal bleeding and ruptured eardrums.

Shock waves produced by explosive events have two distinct components, the positive and negative wave. The positive wave shoves outward from the point of detonation, followed by the trailing vacuum space "sucking back" towards the point of origin as the shock bubble collapses. The greatest defense against shock injuries is distance from the source of shock.

As a point of reference, the over-pressure at the Oklahoma City bombing was estimated in the range of 28 MPa.

Primary injuries are caused by blast over-pressure waves, or shock waves. These are especially likely when a person is close to an exploding munition, such as a land mine. The ears are most often affected by the over-pressure, followed by the lungs and the hollow organs of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal injuries may present after a delay of hours or even days. Injury from blast over-pressure is a pressure and time dependent function. By increasing the pressure or its duration, the severity of injury will also increase.

Blast effects are usually measured by the amount of over-pressure, the pressure in excess of the normal atmospheric value, in pounds per square inch (psi). There is a 1 to 50 psi (6.9 to 345 kilopascals) over-pressure event when a 1 kiloton of TNT equivalent nuke is air burst.


 * A 10kt standard altitude air blast would cause-
 * 15 psi: 0.33 miles
 * 10 psi: 0.41 miles
 * 7 psi: 0.5 miles
 * 5 psi: 0.61 miles
 * 2 psi: 1.06 miles
 * 1 psi: 1.56 miles
 * 0.25 psi: 4.01 miles
 * 0.1 psi: 8.21 miles
 * 0.25 psi, Most glass surfaces, such as windows, will shatter within this ring, some with enough force to cause injury.
 * 1 psi, 38 mph shock-wave wind, Window glass shatters. Light injuries from dislodged fragments and the debris occur.
 * 2 psi, 70 mph shock-wave wind, Moderate damage to houses with the windows and doors blown out and severe damage to roofs being commonplace. People injured by shrapnel made of flying glass and debris.
 * 3 psi, 102 mph shock- wave wind, Residential structures collapse. Serious injuries are common, fatalities may occur.
 * 5 psi, 163 mph shock-wave wind, Most non-reinforced buildings collapse. Trees are torn up and cars are flung about. Injuries are universal and fatalities are widespread. It ruptures the eardrums in about 1% of people in the zone.
 * 7 psi Severe damage to complete destruction of reinforced concrete structures, such as skyscrapers, will occur within this ring.
 * 10 psi, 294 mph shock-wave wind, Reinforced concrete buildings are severely damaged or demolished. Most people are killed.
 * 20 psi, 502 mph shock-wave wind, Most heavily built reinforced concrete buildings and some bunkers are severely damaged or demolished. Fatalities approach 100%. Barotrauma to people and animals is commonplace.
 * 45 psi, Most bunkers and all heavily biult reinforced buildings will collapse. The over-pressure will cause eardrum rupture in about 99% of all victims in the zone.
 * 50 psi, Only the most heavy and sturdy of 'doomsday bunkers' will survive, but they are badly damaged! The death toll is now 100%, with the handful who may survive the blast are horrifically, if not fatally injured!
 * 55 psi, Nothing remains intact and all life forms died instantly! Every thing is torn apart!

In general, primary blast injuries are characterized by the absence of external injuries; thus internal injuries are frequently unrecognized and their severity underestimated. According to the latest experimental results, the extent and types of primary blast-induced injuries depend not only on the peak of the over-pressure, but also other parameters such as number of over-pressure peaks, time-lag between over-pressure peaks, characteristics of the shear fronts between over-pressure peaks, frequency resonance, and electromagnetic pulse, among others.

There is general agreement that spalling, implosion, inertia, and pressure differentials are the main mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of primary blast injuries. Thus, the majority of prior research focused on the mechanisms of blast injuries within gas-containing organs and organ systems such as the lungs, while primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury has remained underestimated. Blast lung refers to severe pulmonary contusion, bleeding or edema type swelling with damage to alveoli and blood vessels, or a combination of these. It is the most common cause of death among people who initially survive an explosion.

Displacement of air by the explosion creates a blast wind that can throw victims against solid objects. Injuries resulting from this type of traumatic impact are referred to as tertiary blast injuries. Tertiary injuries may present as some combination of blunt and penetrating trauma, including bone fractures and coup contre-coup injuries in the victim's heads. Children are at a particularly higher risk of tertiary injury due to their relatively smaller body weight.

Heat burns
In the United States, fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns. Of house fires that result in death, smoking causes 25% and heating devices cause 22%. Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire. Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks, high temperature tap water in baths or showers, hot cooking oil, or steam. Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and, in the United States and Australia, this population makes up about two-thirds of all burns.

Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20-30% of burns in children. Generally, scalds are either first or second degree burns, but third-degree burns may also result, especially with prolonged contact. Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries. This is a particular risk for irresponsible adolescent males.

A thermal wave is created by the sudden release of heat caused by an explosion. Military bomb tests have documented temperatures of up to 2,480 °C (4,500 °F). While capable of inflicting severe to catastrophic burns and causing secondary fires, thermal wave effects are considered very limited in range compared to shock and fragmentation. This rule has been challenged, however, by military development of thermobaric weapons, which employ a combination of negative shock wave effects and extreme temperature to incinerate objects within the blast radius. This would be fatal to humans, as bomb tests have proven.


 * 1) 1st degree (superficial) burns. First-degree burns affect only the epidermis, or outer layer of skin.
 * 2) 2nd degree (partial thickness) burns. Second-degree burns involve the epidermis and part of the dermis layer of skin.
 * 3) 3rd degree (full thickness) burns. The injury extends to all layers of the skin.
 * 4) 4th Degree: Damage the underlying bones, muscles, and tendons.
 * 5) 5th Degree: Organs are burnt. A victim’s chance of survival close to zero and life afterwards is worthless.
 * 6) 6th Degree: A 6th degree burns leave a charred skeleton.
 * 7) 7th Degree: Cremation ashes.

Fragmentation and thrown debris


Secondary injuries are caused by Fragmentation and other objects propelled by the explosion. Fragmentation is produced by the acceleration of shattered pieces of bomb casing and adjacent physical objects. The use of fragmentation in bombs dates to the 14th century, and appears in the Ming Dynasty text Huolongjing. The fragmentation bombs were filled with iron pellets and pieces of broken porcelain. Once the bomb explodes, the resulting shrapnel is capable of piercing the skin and blinding enemy soldiers.

While conventionally viewed as small metal shards moving at super-supersonic and hypersonic speeds, fragmentation can occur in epic proportions and travel for extensive distances. When the S.S. Grandcamp exploded in the Texas City Disaster on April 16, 1947, one fragment of that blast was a two-ton anchor which was hurled nearly two miles inland to embed itself in the parking lot of the Pan American refinery. Fragmentation should not be confused with shrapnel, which relies on the momentum of a shell to cause damage.

Officially 'Shrapnel' refers to the pieces of a bomb, shell, or bullet that has exploded out ward, or thrown debris with in (ie: tungsten balls, nails, etc) with the intended design of fragmentation as a weapon of war. During wars, many soldiers are treated for shrapnel wounds. When people are injured or killed by bombs, many of them are hurt by flying shrapnel, that is- sharp, dangerous shards of metal. At all bomb blasts there are other things like shattered glass from a blasted-out windows and wood from broken furniture.

These injuries may affect any part of the body and sometimes result in penetrating trauma with visible bleeding. At times the projectile (a blast thrown/ propelled object may become embedded in the body, obstructing the loss of blood to the outside. However, there may be extensive blood loss within the body cavities. Fragmentation wounds may be lethal and therefore many anti-personnel bombs are designed to generate fragments.

Most casualties are caused by secondary injuries as generally a larger geographic area is affected by this form of injury than the primary blast site as debris can easily be propelled for hundreds to thousands of meters. Some explosives, such as in nail bombs, are deliberately designed to increase the likelihood of secondary injuries. In other instances, the target provides the raw material for the objects thrown into people, e.g., shattered glass from a blasted-out window or the glass facade of a building or wood from broken furniture.

Shrapnell
Shrapnel shells were anti-personnel artillery munitions which carried a large number of individual bullets close to the target and then ejected them to allow them to continue along the shell's trajectory and strike the target individually. They relied almost entirely on the shell's velocity for their lethality. The munition has been obsolete since the end of World War I for anti-personnel use, when it was superseded by high-explosive shells for that role. The functioning and principles behind Shrapnel shells are fundamentally different from high-explosive shell fragmentation, which it is now commonly included with.

Shrapnel is named after Major-General Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842), a British artillery officer, whose experiments, initially conducted in his own time and at his own expense, culminated in the design and development of a new type of artillery shell.

Blast shelters
A blast shelter is a place where people can go to protect themselves from bomb blasts. It differs from a fallout shelter, in that its main purpose is to protect from shock waves and overpressure, instead of from radioactive precipitation, as a fallout shelter does. It is also possible for a shelter to protect from both blasts and fallout.

Blast shelters are a vital form of protection from nuclear attack and are employed in civil defense. There are above-ground, below-ground, dedicated, dual-purpose, and potential blast shelters. Dedicated blast shelters are built specifically for the purpose of blast protection and thus vary in ways from air-aid shelters, radiation shelters, dugouts, foxholes, vaults, Anderson shelters, Morrison shelters, safes, basements, privately improvised bomb shelters, Safe rooms, mine bed\quarry bottom improvised shelters and bunkers. Dual-purpose blast shelters are existing structures with blast-protective properties that have been modified to accommodate people seeking protection from blasts. Potential blast shelters are existing structures or geological features exhibiting blast-protective properties that have potential to be used for protection from blasts.

Blast shelters deflect the blast wave from nearby explosions to prevent ear and internal injuries to people sheltering in the bunker. While frame buildings collapse from as little as 3 psi (20 kPa) of overpressure, blast shelters are regularly constructed to survive several hundred psi. This substantially decreases the likelihood that a bomb can harm the structure.

The basic plan is to provide a structure that is very strong in compression. The actual strength specification must be done individually, based on the nature and probability of the threat. A typical specification for heavy civil defence shelter in Europe during the Cold war was an overhead explosion of a 500 kiloton weapon at the height of 500 meters. Such a weapon would be used to attack soft targets (factories, administrative centres, communications) in the area.

Only the most heavy bedrock-shelters would stand a chance of surviving. However, in the countryside or in a suburb, the likely distance to the explosion is much larger, as it is improbable that anyone would waste an expensive nuclear device on such targets. The most common purpose-built structure is a steel-reinforced concrete vault or arch buried or located in the basement of a house.

Blast resistant doors protect people and property from explosions and shrapnel. One type is four inches of concrete that resists structural fires, cutting torches, fires, withstand a 50 PSI (3 bar) blast load in a seated condition, 14.5 PSI (1 bar) rebound load in a unseated condition and multiple hits with a 7.62 NATO round with no penetration.

Also see

 * 1) Nukes
 * 2) Science
 * 3) Torpedoes
 * 4) Hand grenades
 * 5) ASM-A-1 Tarzon
 * 6) The rules of war
 * 7) M18 Claymore mine
 * 8) Land and sea mines
 * 9) Explosive blast\yield
 * 10) Popular types of explosives
 * 11) Mk 2 "Pine apple" grenade
 * 12) Soviet F1 "limonka" hand grenade
 * 13) Ballistic missiles, missiles and military rockets
 * 14) A nuclear\atomic holocaust or nuclear apocalypse