Overview[]
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO /ˈneɪtoʊ/; French: Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, where the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe also resides. Belgium is one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70 percent of the global total. Members' defense spending is supposed to amount to 2 percent (%) of GDP.
History[]
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); French: Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN); (also called the North Atlantic Alliance, the Atlantic Alliance, or the Western Alliance) is a military alliance established by the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949. Headquartered in Brussels, Belgium, the organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party.
The background to its formation[]
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is now an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries.
For decades Britain had traditional supported Greece, but was near bankruptcy in 1949 due to the Second World War and was thus forced to end all meaningful involvement in Greece. This is why Britain had formally requested the United States take over its role in supporting Greece during the February of 1947. Yugoslavia and Bulgaria had also got there own plans to spread communism to Greece, conquer Albania and set up a Yugoslav puppet state in Greek Macedonia.
The Berlin airlift, the rising numbers of Soviet troops in East Germany during the late 1940s and Czechoslovak coup of 1948 all increased the perception among many Europeans that the Soviets posed a real danger, helping to prompt the entry into NATO of Portugal (fascist), Iceland (weak), Italy (communist insurgency), Denmark (weak) and Norway (bordered the USSR). The Icelandic NATO riot of March 30, 1949 was the only major public protest over NATO at the time.
Several nations had already agreed to found it about 6 months earlier. These nations were- France, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium, the US, the UK and Canada.
Cold War[]
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanised the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The first NATO Secretary General Lord Ismay, famously described the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down".
Royal Danish Air Force was established in 1950 the area was named Air Base Karup. During the post-war years Karup Air Base became a central part of Denmark's NATO defence plan and played a major role in the establishment of the Royal Danish Air Force (RDAF). In 1955 the Tactical Air Command were placed at Karup. Civil airport facilities opened in 1965 and military operations were partly transferred to other air bases in the 1970s and 1980s.
West Germany would join NATO in 1955 and would get substantial aid and technical training from the UK and USA until the mid 1960s.
The building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 marked a height in Cold War tensions, when 400,000 US troops were stationed in Europe
Throughout the Cold War doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion - doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure from 1966. France had left in 1966 since President de Gaulle had began constructing an independent defense force for his country. He wanted to give France, in the event of an East German incursion into West Germany, the option of coming to a separate peace with the Eastern bloc instead of being drawn into a NATO-Warsaw Pact general war. France re-joined in 2009.
Some LTV A-7 Corsair II aircraft was also exported to Greece in the 1970s and Portugal in the late 1980s to upgrade there aging fleets. They were, like the USA, part of NATO.
Over the years, many US and some UK bases were built across the member states to bolster there defences against a Soviet attack.
Later years[]
After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organisation became drawn into the Balkans while building better links with former potential enemies to the east, which culminated with the former European Warsaw Pact states (except for both the USSR, al be it less the Baltic States; and Albania) joining the alliance in 1999 and 2004. Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, NATO has attempted to refocus itself to new challenges and has deployed troops to Afghanistan and trainers to Iraq. France, Croatia and Albania had joined by 2009.
1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia and KFOR[]
NATO helped free Kosovo with the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia and joined KFOR As of 26 December 2013, KFOR consists of 4,000 troops. It did well in this role.
Kosovo's independence is a divisive issue since it is an artificial made, 90% ethnically pure, homeland for Kosovars. It covers the former Serbian province of Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija.
Expansion[]
In Europe[]
- Greece and Turkey joined the military alliance joined NATO in 1952 since it guaranteed their protection from communist invasion and terrorism.
- Politically unstable Spain joined in 1982 (it was still fighting the ETA separatist movement back then) in case it needed help looking after its overseas assets whilst fighting terrorism at home.
- Germany reunited in 1990 and did no go neutral as originally envisaged.
- Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic joined the organization, amid much debate within the organisation and Russian opposition in 1999. They were scared of Russia's slide toward oligarchy and dictatorship.
- Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania joined NATO on 29 March 2004. The were disgusted by Russia's bullying tactics and cutting gas supplies to Ukraine.
- Albania and Croatia joined on 1 April 2009. The were concerned about any long turn resurgent Serbian treat.
- The Montenegrin government officially approved joining NATO on 29 April 2017.
- Finland, Moldova, Serbia, Sweden, Ukraine, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia and Macedonia have either recently asked to join or were invited to join at a later date.
- The Republic of Kosovo wants to join NATO, but 4 NATO states blocked this. The neo-fascist nations Greece (hates Albanians and Macedonians), Russia (hate all non-Russians\Belarussians) and Spain (hates Basques and Catalans, the prior then went on to founded ETA in response), hopelessly divided Cyprus and the former Eastern Bloc nations of Romania, Slovakia, do not recognize Kosovo's independence. The United Nations (UN) dose not recognise it either since it is an artificial made ethnic homeland for Kosovars. It covers the former Serbian province of Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. FEFA and the IOC do recognise it. The EU unofficially recognised it in 2012.
Possible global moves[]
Some have proposed expanding NATO outside of Europe, which would require amending Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty.
The proposals cover Mexico, Colombia, New Zealand, South Korea, Brazil, South Africa, Singapore, Israel, Australia, India and Japan.
During the June 2013, Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos stated his hope that Colombia's cooperation with NATO could result in NATO membership, but his Foreign Minister, Juan Carlos Pinzon, quickly clarified that Colombia is not actively seeking NATO membership.
NATO's rules[]
General rules[]
- Willingness to settle international, ethnic, political or external territorial disputes by only peaceful means, the commitment to the rule of law, respecting human rights and democratic control of the armed forces.
- The ability to contribute to the organization's mutual defence and missions.
- To spend at least 2% of national budgets on defence.
- The devotion of sufficient resources to armed forces to be able to meet the commitments of membership.
- The security of sensitive information and safeguards ensuring it stays so.
- The compatibility of domestic legislation with NATO cooperation.
- Mutual defence by all members in a 'one for all and all for one' defence doctrine.
- Unofficially America had no intention of honoring the 'one for all and all for one' defence doctrine and Europe new it. Turkey, the UK, France, S. Korea, S. Vietnam and W. Germany were all Cold War era cannon-fodder for the USA.
Article 5[]
“The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area.
Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security.”
Article 6[]
“For the purpose of Article 5, an armed attack on one or more of the Parties is deemed to include an armed attack:
on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France 2, on the territory of Turkey or on the Islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer; on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any other area in Europe in which occupation forces of any of the Parties were stationed on the date when the Treaty entered into force or the Mediterranean Sea or the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer.”
Military exercises[]
NATO held several exercises during the Cold War such as Western Europe's Exercise Reforger and Scandinavia's Exercise Northern Viking.
Exercise Ocelot '99 was Poland's first international air exercise since joining NATO in the 1990's.
It's organisational structures[]
[1][2]Anders Fogh Rasmussen took over as Secretary General of NATO in August 2009.The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard Léopold III, B-1110 Brussels, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality.[95] A new headquarters building is, as of 2010, under construction nearby, due for completion by 2015.[96] The design is an adaptation of the original award-winning scheme designed by Michel Mossessian and his team when he was a Design Partner with SOM.[97]
The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states.[98] Non-governmental citizens' groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement.
The NATO Council[]
Like any alliance, NATO is ultimately governed by its 28 member states. However, the North Atlantic Treaty, and other agreements, outline how decisions are to be made within NATO. Each of the 28 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO's headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.[99] The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador (and holding that diplomatic rank). Several countries have diplomatic missions to NATO through embassies in Belgium.
Together, the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO. From time to time the Council also meets at higher level meetings involving foreign ministers, defence ministers or heads of state or government (HOSG) and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO's policies are generally taken. However, it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision-making, and its decisions have the same status and validity, at whatever level it meets. NATO summits also form a further venue for decisions on complex issues, such as enlargement.
The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General of NATO and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.
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NATO Parliamentary Assembly[]
Main article: NATO Parliamentary Assembly[3][4]NATO Ministers of Defense and of Foreign Affairs meet at NATO headquarters in Brussels.The body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO is the NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO-PA) which meets at the Annual Session, and one other during the year, and is the organ that directly interacts with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. Karl A. Lamers, German Deputy Chairman of the Defence Committee of the Bundestag and a member of the Christian Democratic Union, became president of the assembly in 2010.[102] It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.
The Assembly is the political integration body of NATO that generates political policy agenda setting for the NATO Council via reports of its five committees:
- Committee on the Civil Dimension of Security
- Defence and Security Committee
- Economics and Security Committee
- Political Committee
- Science and Technology Committee
These reports provide impetus and direction as agreed upon by the national governments of the member states through their own national political processes and influencers to the NATO administrative and executive organizational entities.
Military structures[]
Main article: Military units and formations of NATO[5][6]NATO E-3A flying with US F-16s in a NATO exerciseThe second pivotal member of each country's delegation is the Military Representative, a senior officer from each country's armed forces, supported by the International Military Staff. Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee, a body responsible for recommending to NATO's political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy. It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders, whose representatives attend its meetings, and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council. The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Giampaolo Di Paola of Italy, since 2008.
Like the Council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nation's armed forces. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from NATO's integrated military structure, which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members. Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom.[103] The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff.
NATO's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee, and split into two Strategic Commands commanded by a senior US officer[104] and a senior French officer[105] assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command.
The Military Committee in turn directs two principal NATO organizations: the Allied Command Operations responsible for the strategic, operational and tactical management of combat and combat support forces of the NATO members, and the Allied Command Transformation organization responsible for the induction of the new member states' forces into NATO, and NATO forces' research and training capability.[106]
Criticisms, failures, inter-member backstabbing and alleged inactions (1945-2002)[]
America uber alis[]
America was accuse repeatedly between the Korean War and the War on Terror of stealing the glory of others and dominating decision making in NATO.
Operation Gladio[]
Operation Gladio had been covertly supported in least in some places by NATO. The Prime supporters were America, Canada and the UK.
Some units were good like in Austria where it had been covertly set up by far-right winger Herr Soucek and Herr Rössner as a genuine attempt to fight any occupying forces; while others were bad like in Turkey, which were the political enemies of the then Turkish prime minister Bülent Ecevit. He was the target of several assassination plots. Rumours persist its aging members still covertly hold out in places.
The 1953-1966 Project Iceworm[]
America had launched an attempt to covertly construct an underground network of nuclear missile launch sites in the Greenlandic ice cap named Project Iceworm against Denmark's plans for the islands usage of the island. Camp Fistclench was run from 1953 to 1960 and Camp Century ran from 1960 to 1966 to support the project. It was carried out from Camp Century from 1960 to 1966 before being abandoned as unworkable. Whilst logical and necessary, American attempts to build an ICBM silo in northern Greenland were done without Denmark's concent and were thus illegal. The the then Danish government finally agreed with reluctance, but shifting glacial ice fialy damaged it so much the project was abandoned. The Danish never liked nuclear bombs and regarded them as both overly horrific and unjustified.
Unfortunately the subsequent Danish government did not become aware of the covert programme's actual mission until 1997, when it was discovered while looking in military archives for any records related to the crash of a nuclear-equipped B-52 bomber at Thule in 1968. The site's once deep glacier is now melting due to global warming and the polluted remnants are coming to the surface way earlier than expected, prompting Greenland to ask Denmark and the US for help in clearing it up.
ETA, the Troubles and alike[]
America was intermittently offering unofficial diplomatic sympathy and help to both the IRA and other related Irish Nationalist/Republican groups. America was probably helping Guerrilleros de Cristo Rey anginas Basque nationalist/communist ETA terrorist organisation via Operation Gladio. The Guerrilleros de Cristo Rey (Warriors of Christ the King) was possibly also conected with the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (AKA- The Triple A).
Italy's Years of Lead[]
Covert forces run by Operation Gladio intervened in Italy's Years of Lead with out Italy kowning and backed both National Vanguard and Ordine Nuovo.
The Cod Wars[]
The 2nd (or 1972-73) Anglo-Icelandic Cod War[]
On 16 September, Joseph Luns, Secretary-General of NATO held talks with with Icelandic ministers after they had asked to leave NATO since it had not blindly and automatic sided with the against the UK, Belgium and W. Germany, but had gone neutral instead. They wanted UK and US forces out. In the end they stayed in, but only after all UK and some US forces left.
The 3rd (or 1975-76) Anglo-Icelandic Cod War[]
This on and off fishing despite and the subsequent 'Cod Wars' became more dangerous when Iceland threatened closure of the NATO base at Keflavík, thus undermining NATO's securing of the Atlantic Ocean from the Soviet Union, so the UK agreed to Iceland's 200 nautical mile (370 km) exclusion zone without a specific agreement. 2 Icelandic fishing boats had also registered under the Soviet flag. The Soviets were a bit confused by the event, but did accepted the Icelandic ships' documents all tha same.
A theory was going at the time was that Iceland was going to betray the plans for their part of the SOSUS sonar buoy line in the GIUK gap to the USSR, which angered the USA greatly.
All of this was more than enough for the UK, UK, Belgium, W. Germany, USA and ultimately the rest of NATO to call Iceland a traitor and to invade it, which they did not.
The 1974 Cypriot coup d'état and 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus[]
Greece was not prevented from subverting the island's government in the 1974 Cypriot coup d'état nor was Turkey stopped from invading it. Both acts were with aggressive intentions towards the opposite ethnicity on Cyprus.
The early 1980s Dutch refusal to take nuclear weapons.[]
The Dutch never liked nuclear bombs and regarded them as overly horrific and unjustified. The USA bullied them into taking up nuclear armed American troops and threatened to kick them out of NATO at one point. Both the Dutch Oud-Strijders Legioen and some members of the UK's CND organised several of the 1980s against the stationing of American nuclear arms in the Netherlands.
'Espionnage Élysée', et all[]
America's NSA spied on the French government over several years.
Rumours also swilled around in the UK tabloids between 1981 and 1982 of 3 or 5 snooping devices in 'Golf-ball' class radomes peering at the radio phone/fax machine communications of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing in 1981 and François Mitterrand between 1981 and 1982. It is probably fair to say that France was being spied on by the US from the early 1980s to the mid 2010, but probably not with any 'Golf-ball's.
America's NSA is known to have spied on the French government between 2004-2014 on the communications of:
- French President Jacques Chirac (1995–2007),
- French cabinet ministers (2004-2014),
- The French Ambassador to the United States (2004-2014)
- French President Francois Hollande (2012–2016),
- French President Nicolas Sarkozy (2007–2012).
Whilst all NATO members do occasional snoop on each other just in case of an undetected covert plot forming from with-in another member state, constantly harassing France would have brought into question whether the USA ever trusted it in the firs place, explaining why it left NATO under General Charles DeGalle, but still remained a Western ally.
1982 Falklands War[]
The United Nations Security Council Resolution 502, which passed with ten votes in support, one against (Panama) and four abstentions (China, the Soviet Union, Poland and Spain). The Soviet Union did have several interests in the South Atlantic and Antarctic region, but chose not to intervene in the war. The United States was also concerned by the prospect of Argentina turning to the Soviet Union for support and initially tried to mediate an end to the conflict. President Regan ensured that U.S. provided the United Kingdom with military equipment ranging from submarine detectors and satellite images to hi-tech radios and the latest missiles. They even agreed to a request by the UK government to borrow the Sea Harrier-capable amphibious assault ship USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2) if the British lost an aircraft carrier. France was upset by Argentina's needless use of military force and provided dissimilar no-export variant aircraft training so Harrier pilots could train against the French aircraft used by Argentina, while Argentina's training was at best off topic.
The French and British intelligence services co-operated to prevent Argentina from obtaining more Exocet missiles on the international market. West Germany informally gave some supplies to the UK. The satellite signal interception station at Fauske (Fauske II), Norway was vital in giving the British intelligence information regarding Argentinian fleet locations during the 1982 Falklands War.
Denmark, Iceland, Portugal, Canada, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Greece and Turkey offered no help to the UK despite being part of NATO.
1983 U.S. Intervention in Grenada[]
Operation Urgent Fury (AKA: the 1983 U.S. Intervention in Grenada) was a 1983 United States–led invasion of Grenada, a Caribbean island nation with a population of about 91,000 located 160 kilometres (99 mi) north of Venezuela, that resulted in a U.S. victory within a matter of weeks. Grenada had been a colony of the United Kingdom until 1974, but had retained the British monarch as head of state after independence. The leftist and pro-Cuban New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979, It was seen favourably by much of the Grenadian population, even after suspending the constitution.
In a United Nations General Assembly vote over the American invasion 108 were in favour of the resalution and 9 (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, El Salvador, Israel, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and the United States) voting against, with 27 abstentions. They adopted the General Assembly Resolution 38/7, which was worded as to "deeply deplores the armed intervention in Grenada, which constitutes a flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of that State." The invasion was opposed by the United Kingdom, USSR, Trinidad and Tobago and Canada, The USSR condemn it as a war of aggression and accused the USA of undermining Grenada for several years earlier.
The UK was usually friendly towards to the new Grenadian and wanted a diplomatic solution to the crisis, so the USA, Barbados and Jamaica did not tell them when it was going to happen until it had already started, which left the UK out of any major decision making until it was to late. The usual fears about leeks, Soviet military intervention, fast moving Cold War political situations and suspected Cuban agents had panicked the American intelligence community, so the military had to do a rush job anyhow.
The UK's population had taken it as a major personal sight against them by the USA, Barbados and Jamaica. The British government was more concerned that it was not consulted by America than anything else, but was glad to see the communists removed. America, Jamaica and Barbados were also left concerned if the UK still regarded Grenada as a colony or if the British were relay still an ally of the USA.
Exercise Able Archer '83[]
The Able Archer exercises were devised as a simulated period of conflict escalation, culminating in a simulated DEFCON 1 coordinated nuclear attack. The Exercise Able Archer '83 exercise also introduced a new, unique format of coded communication, radio silences, and the participation of heads of government.
It was a major event that spanned Western Europe's NATO members and was centred on the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE)’s headquarters in Belgian village of Casteau, north of the city of Mons.
Because it simulated an actual nuclear weapons release, so British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl and several NATO technical support units in the nuclear launch drill. United States President Reagan, Vice President George H. W. Bush, and Secretary of Defence Caspar Weinberger were also intended to participate, but did not get round to it. It is to be noted that Robert McFarlane, who had assumed the position of National Security Advisor just two weeks earlier, had uniquely realised the implications of such participation early in the exercise's planning and rejected it. A planned training move through all DEFCON alert phases, from DEFCON 5 to DEFCON 1 would occur. While these phases were simulated, alarmist KGB agents mistakenly reported them as actual.
Soviet Politburo and military chiefs feared the U.S. was conducting a sly and cowardly ruse of war hide a genuine nuclear surprise attack by means of a first strike nuclear assault on them, so the Soviets readied their nuclear forces and placed Warsaw Pact air units in East Germany and Poland on alert in what became known as- the 1983 war scare. The USSR was convinced that the newly arrived Pershing II missile were part of a strike plan that was to take place from the European part of NATO on American orders. The KGB and GRU run Operation RYAN was created a few years earlier to work out just were the Americans were planning to nuke, why and how best to protect them. Their guidance system was self-correcting and the estimated flight time reach targets in the western Soviet Union from West Germany was 4 to 6 after launching. They knew there early launch radar was unreliable as they found out in the 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident and so was of little if any use to them.
The Soviet intelligence establishment thought the burst of coded UK-USA communication tragic regarding the 1983 U.S. Intervention in Grenada was a very cunning and subtle cover for planning a nuclear war in Europe, while military strategists thought it was part of a plan to eventually invade Cuba.
Whilst Soviet forces were awesome on paper a sharp economic decline, shortages in key industries, endemic political corruption and bureaucratic inefficacy had devastated their battle readiness. Many had also started to doubt the value of Life under communism.
It has been long rumored that Exercise Able Archer '83 was a secret plot by American politicians, military, secret service and/or 'big business' to force a USSR vs UK\FRG war. President Ronald Reagan would have known nothing until the bombs had started to fall and would have thought the USSR had gone crazy. A USSR\USA atomic war would have resulted with a USA victory very likely, but at heavy loss.
1986 United States bombing of Libya[]
Libya's support fort the 1985 Rome and Vienna airport attacks, Red Army Faction, the Red Brigades (in Italy), quarrels with neighbouring African states and the Irish Republican Army; the Gulf of Sidra incident, and the 5 April 1986 bombing by Libyan agents of the "La Belle" nightclub in West Berlin angered NATO's leadership greatly. West Germany and the United States soon obtained diplomatic cable transcripts from Libyan agents in East Germany who were involved in the attack.
Canada allowed the appropriate war games in Newfoundland and the UK allowed the use of RAF Upper Heyford to launch the attack force from.
For the Libyan raid, the United States was denied overflight rights by France (intimidated by Libya), Spain (intimidated by Libya) and Italy (liked Ghadaffi's Libya). West Germany (politically upset) refused overflights and the use of its air bases. Both France and W. Germany also resented the USA not asking permission until the last moment and refusing to say what he mission was about beyond that the USAF was gonging to bomb Libya. The Italian politician Bettino Craxi warned the Libyans about the planned attack and Italy proceeded to betray the NATO plans (as far as they knew them at the time) to Libya! The Americans had to fly over Portugal and through the Straits of Gibraltar, thus adding 1,300 miles (2,100 km) each way with increased aerial refuelling to do so.
Soviet Union had unexpectedly chosen to explicitly announced that it would not provide additional help to Libya beyond resupplying basic armaments and munitions, but denounced the attack as a 'wild' and 'barbaric' act by the United States. Libya soon retaliated by the firing two non-nuclear Scud missiles at a United States Coast Guard station that was situated on the Italian island of Lampedusa, but they overshot the target and landed harmlessly in the sea.
All that Italy had done was more than enough for the USA and the rest of NATO to call Italy a traitor and to invade it, which they did not do. America's refusal to co-operate with France and W. Germany was also a breach of NATO's mutual co-operation rules.
The 1995 Srebrenica massacre[]
The USA, UK and France ignored Dutch requests to launch air strikes or send in ground forces, which lead to ~8,000 Muslim/Bozniak townsfolk and some of the the Dutch peacekeepers getting killed by the Bosnian Serbs in the Srebrenica massacre. The USA, UK and France were colluding with the Serbs on finding a quick and easy solution to the local fighting before ending war, which was finally closed under the Dayton accords.
The 9/11 attacks[]
Article 5 of the NATO treaty is its casus foederis. It commits each member state to consider an armed attack against one member state to be an armed attack against them all. It was invoked only once so far and it was done by the United States after the September 11 attacks in 2001. Apparently, the governments of Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Denmark showed no overt sympathy to the USA or any condemnation of the attacks, unlike their citizens. If they did not actually offer any covert help either and really meant to see America swing, then they thus breached the treaty's mutual defense aspect. The UK, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Greece, the USA, Canada, France, Israel and Turkey increased there diplomatic and espionage activity in the Middle East activate in order to stop any immediate threats to U.S. assets in the region.
The EU's breakdown of relations with Turkey[]
Turkey and Germany used to be friends and Turkish labor rebuilt both Germanys in the 1960s and 1970s. West Germany also had British and Irish builders, while East Germany had Cuban, Angolan, Vietnamese and Mozambique laborers.
Things started to go wrong in 1990 when West Germans had some fights with the Irish and Brits, as well as slamming the East German plan to give Turks Visa free access to the GDR lead to protests from the FRG, who claimed it was a plot to flood them with Turks.
between March 30th and April 2nd, 1990. With in days 200 E. German skinheads football rioted and beat up some Turks in E. Berlin, an Angolan was racial assaulted in East Berlin, several Turks were burnt out of a hostel in Rostok and a Brit was beaten up in West Berlin.
Over 500 Turkish Kurds that were fleeing the then low level separatist conflict were stranded in Czechoslovakia after being refused their admission into W. Germany on Jun 13th, 1990.
Turkish soccer thugs in the early 2000s and the rise of the authoritarian leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan aggravated the situation further.
Both Turkey and Germany began threat constructing in the mid 2000s. Turkey blamed Europe, the PKK, the PYK, the EU and Syria's civil war; whilst the EU blamed immigrants, the Syrian part of the 2008 economic crash, the rise of UKIP and the Turks for all woes. Both said it was grounds for extraordinary political powers and also soft neo-Nazisum in Europe. As a result Islamists gained popularity in Turkey, whilst Nazis and Popularisum took off in the EU.
Several nations that spent under 2% of their budgets on defense.[]
The figures for 2001 were:- Greece ~ 4.25%, Turkey ~3.75%, USA 3.25%, Bulgaria ~2.75%, France and Romania ~2.60%, UK ~2.5, Croatia ~ 2.40%, Slovenia ~ 2.05%, Portugal ~2.0% and Czech Republic 1.95% in 2001.
America's general post-Cold War attitude the the EU member states[]
Recent history suggests they regard European NATO members, Turkish, S. Koreans and Australians as cannon fodder in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars (unlike Korea and Vietnam) since they now don't have the national courage to do more than send in cruise missiles, bomber jets, special forces and armed UAVs!
Apparently any latter-day European hot Cold War scenario, unlike a Cold War era hot Cold War scenario in Caribbean/Cuban, is of less concern to them since mostly W. European civilian lives that would be lost and so they would not care as much about an attack in Europe. The EU could have stood alone as of 2002 if the EU had pooled its forces under a unified joint command!
Videos[]
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Also see[]
- NATO Military Symbols
- NATO command structures and HQs
- NATO reporting name
- NATO defensive fortifaction lines
- NATO Phonetic Alphabet
- Soviet/NATO invasion of Finland
- 5.56x45mm NATO
- 7.62x51mm NATO
- Secretary-General of NATO
- Skynet IV\Skynet 4 (AKA: "NATO-4")
- Arab League
- EU
- Warsaw Pact
- ECOWAS
- European Union
- Soviet/NATO invasion of Finland
- SOSUS sonar buoy line
- Atomic War
- Atomic warfare information notes.
- Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948
- Marshall Plan
- EFTA
- UN
- EBU
- ASEAN
- The 5 Eyes
- Superpower
- Volkel Air Base
- Batajnica Air Base
- USAF Strategic Air Command
- Air Materiel Command
- Secretary-General of NATO
- Allied Air Command İzmir
- Allied Land Command
- United States Air Force Security Service (USAFSS)
- Secretary-General of NATO
- Northern Army Group (NORTHAG)
- British Army of the Rhine (BAOR)
- Ramstein Air Base
- 5.56x45mm standard NATO round
- Chinese 5.8x42mm
- Soviet 5.45x39mm
- Joint Operations Center Maastricht (JOC Maastricht)
- Static War Headquarters Castlegate in Linnich, Germany
- NATO (World political shenanigans)
- Secretary-General of NATO
- NATO command structures and HQs
- Soviet/NATO invasion of Finland
- Skynet IV\Skynet 4 (AKA: "NATO-4")
- NATO's Baltic Air Policing Unit
- Exercise Reforger
- Deutsches Institut für Normung
- Secretary-General of NATO
- NATO command structures and HQs
- Exercise Nifty Nugget/Operation Nifty Nugget
- Izmir Air Station
- Greenham Air Base
- NATO (World political shenanigans)
- Secretary-General of NATO
- NATO command structures and HQs
- Soviet/NATO invasion of Finland
- Skynet IV\Skynet 4 (AKA: "NATO-4")
- United States European Command (EUCOM)
- US Central Command (CENTCOM)
- US Africa Command (AFRICOM)
- NATO's Baltic Air Policing Unit
- Operation Square Leg (1980) and Exercise Hard Rock (1982)
- POMCUS (Prepositioning Of Materiel Configured in Unit Sets) sites
- Izmir Air Station
- Çiğli Air Base
Outside links[]
- https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_110496.htm
- https://edition.cnn.com/videos/politics/2018/07/19/trump-montenegro-fallout-paton-walsh-dnt-vpx.cnn
- https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_154263.htm?selectedLocale=en
- https://www.cbsnews.com/news/why-people-are-worried-about-trumps-montenegro-comments/
- http://www.tronc.com/gdpr/latimes.com/
- https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_154999.htm?selectedLocale=en
- https://www.thelocal.de/20170811/merkel-condemns-verbal-escalation-with-north-korea-after-trump-tweets
- http://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/09/politics/turkey-us-visa-diplomacy/index.html
- https://tr.usembassy.gov
- http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/russian-defence-ministry-confirms-turkey-shot-down-its-jet-but-claims-no-air-space-violation-a6746276.html
- http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/03/turkey-buy-russia-s400-missile-defence-system-170323131537509.html
- http://uk.businessinsider.com/turkey-says-it-has-bought-russias-s-400-missile-defense-system-2017-9?r=US&IR=T
- https://www.rt.com/news/367445-turkey-russia-s-400/
- https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2017/09/12/Turkey-to-purchase-S-400-surface-to-air-missiles-from-Russia/8741505225235/
- https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russian-su-24-fighter-jet-shot-down-syria-turkey-airspace-violation/
- http://asbarez.com/102289/will-armenia-host-russian-radar/
- https://www.wired.com/story/google-big-eu-fine?mbid=nl_62717_p3&CNDID=50121752
- https://www.thelocal.de/20170810/san-francisco-v-berlin-which-is-better-for-startups-tech
- https://uk.yahoo.com/news/britain-stops-sharing-manchester-attack-082400634.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/montenegro-defies-russia-become-nato-member-100444839.html
- https://mobile.nytimes.com/reuters/2017/11/18/world/europe/18reuters-turkey-nato-erdogan.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/montenegro-defies-russia-become-nato-member-100444839.html
- http://theportugalnews.com/news/portugal-colluding-with-nsa/29775
- http://www.rawstory.com/2011/02/revealed-air-force-ordered-software-to-manage-army-of-fake-virtual-people/
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/david_hurn_photographer_swaps_magnum
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-41437636
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-41431507
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-41430927
- http://www.businessinsider.com/google-ceo-schmidt-nsa-spying-on-our-cloud-is-outrageous-if-true-2013-11
- http://time.com/4718958/montenegro-nato-rand-paul/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_Montenegro_to_NATO
- http://time.com/4718958/montenegro-nato-rand-paul/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accession_of_Montenegro_to_NATO
- http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/10/30/us-spy-chiefs-hit-back-in-europe-row/#sthash.ZvEmkbcF.dpuf
- http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/nsa-spying-the-faux-outrage-of-america-s-bugged-allies-1.2255092
- https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/graff-buys-17-5-million-060000665.html
- https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/buy-let-lending-house-purchase-094521343.html
- https://uk.style.yahoo.com/legend-king-arthur-filmmaker-apos-180616958.html
- https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/no-case-shifting-euro-clearing-brexit-city-london-115604983--business.html
- https://uk.news.yahoo.com/more-u-republicans-back-independent-probe-trump-russia-150752139.html
- https://uk.news.yahoo.com/vladimir-putin-apos-ready-record-115404541.html
- https://uk.news.yahoo.com/congressman-call-impeachment-donald-trump-afternoon-133517195.html
- https://uk.style.yahoo.com/makes-hair-turn-grey-102212480.html
- https://uk.news.yahoo.com/tusk-says-eu-wants-safeguards-against-trade-dumping-082549612.html
- https://uk.sports.yahoo.com/news/pep-guardiola-blames-red-wine-081859686.html
- http://www.sacbee.com/news/local/article150268667.html
- https://adoptionland.org/p/744/300000-babies-abducted-in-spanish-adoption-scam/
- https://uk.style.yahoo.com/sweden-apos-eurovision-act-slams-090955997.html
- https://uk.yahoo.com/finance/news/eu-court-says-singapore-trade-deal-needs-national-080154056--finance.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/trial-begins-turkey-staff-anti-erdogan-daily-085341900.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/turkey-drops-terror-charge-against-german-firms-berlin-110244844.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/erdogan-gambling-centuries-old-ties-germany-schaeuble-062208420.html
- https://uk.yahoo.com/news/polands-commitment-rule-law-gets-eu-member-state-114406632.html
- https://uk.yahoo.com/news/general-election-2017-briefing-everything-071026962.html
- https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/topic/brexit
- https://uk.style.yahoo.com/sweden-apos-eurovision-act-slams-090955997.html
- https://uk.yahoo.com/news/polands-commitment-rule-law-gets-eu-member-state-114406632.html
- https://uk.yahoo.com/news/general-election-2017-briefing-everything-071026962.html
- https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/topic/brexit
- https://uk.style.yahoo.com/sweden-apos-eurovision-act-slams-090955997.html
- https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/31/czech-cyber-attack-russia-suspected-of-hacking-diplomats-emails
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_Germany
- https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2015/01/23/turkish-father-and-son-victims-of-racist-attack-in-germany
- https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2016/09/27/turkish-mosque-attacked-in-germanys-islamophobia-hub
- http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~mamma22j/classweb/turksingermany/chronologyforturksingermany.html
- https://www.stormfront.org/forum/t1178784/
- http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/07/turkey-china-random-violence-become-norm-in-lgbt.html
- http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/12/31/507723587/turkey-nightclub-terror-attack-leaves-at-least-35-dead-more-than-40-wounded
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Forces_Germany
- http://www.breitbart.com/london/2014/10/27/4000-riot-germany-17-arrests/
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/jack-culcay-hoping-capitalise-demetrius-142200564.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/florida-judge-denies-stand-ground-defense-shooting-152038620.html
- https://amp.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/mar/12/british-democracy-at-risk-from-russian-hackers-says-gchq
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/daylight-saving-time-begins-united-102606753.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/protests-rotterdam-over-turkish-rally-ban-223104423.html
- http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/03/12/protests-after-netherlands-bars-turkish-ministers-plane-landing/99086726/?hootPostID=d60196f013f62d3e2d9c884a8229251e
- http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/03/12/protests-after-netherlands-bars-turkish-ministers-plane-landing/99086726/?utm_source=feedblitz&utm_medium=FeedBlitzRss&utm_campaign=usatoday-newstopstories
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Turkey
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Turkey
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/protests-rotterdam-over-turkish-rally-ban-223104423.html
- http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/25727/pegida-anti-muslim-riots-is-germany-flirting-with-its-dark-past/
- https://www.artefactmagazine.com/2015/06/02/why-hooliganism-still-plagues-turkish-football/
- https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2015/may/13/violence-killing-turkish-football-fenerbahce-besiktas-galatasaray
- http://football-hooligans.org/turkish-hooligans.html
- http://football-hooligans.org/turkish-hooligans.html
- http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/03/12/protests-after-netherlands-bars-turkish-ministers-plane-landing/99086726/?utm_source=feedblitz&utm_medium=FeedBlitzRss&utm_campaign=usatoday-newstopstories
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/turkish-minister-france-slams-fascist-netherlands-142310585.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/tensions-rise-turkish-president-warns-150939155.html
- http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-netherlands-turkey-20170311-story.html
- http://www.breitbart.com/london/2017/03/05/turkish-president-accuses-germany-nazi-practices/
- https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2016/11/international-coalition-slams-cumhuriyet-arrests-and-media-closures/
- https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/aug/03/free-speech-groups-condemn-turkeys-closure-of-29-publishers-after-failed-coup
- http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-widens-internet-censorship.aspx?pageID=238&nID=63954&NewsCatID=338
- http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/turkey-censorship/
- http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/02/06/turket-internet-censorship/5252253/
- http://cbs12.com/news/nation-world/full-measure-sum-of-knowledge
- http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2017/03/02/netizen_report_man_in_myanmar_sentenced_to_prison_for_defaming_aung_san.html
- http://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/yucels-detention-points-to-press-restrictions-in-turkey/ar-AAnCysK
- http://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/yucels-detention-points-to-press-restrictions-in-turkey/ar-AAnCysK
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-25333663
- http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/nsa-spying-facebook-google-twitter-demand-controls-1.2456259
- http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/nsa-document-raises-questions-about-canada-in-g8-spying-1.2447398
- http://theportugalnews.com/news/portugal-colluding-with-nsa/29775
- http://www.theguardian.com/world/the-nsa-files?INTCMP=mic_232382
- http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/nov/01/snowden-nsa-files-surveillance-revelations-decoded
- http://thecable.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/10/24/exclusive_germany_brazil_turn_to_un_to_restrain_american_spies
- http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/10/30/us-spy-chiefs-hit-back-in-europe-row/#sthash.ZvEmkbcF.dpuf
- http://www.newsmax.com/NewsmaxTv/nsa-barack-obama-spying-angela-merkel/2013/11/04/id/534719
- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/10988939/Germany-to-spy-on-US-and-UK-intelligence-gathering-for-the-first-time-in-45-years.html
- http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/11/world/europe/germany-us-spying-investigation/index.html
- http://www.dw.de/nsa-scandal-is-an-opportunity-for-latin-america/a-16948979
- http://www.newsmax.com/NewsmaxTv/nsa-barack-obama-spying-angela-merkel/2013/11/04/id/534719
- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/10988939/Germany-to-spy-on-US-and-UK-intelligence-gathering-for-the-first-time-in-45-years.html
- http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/11/world/europe/germany-us-spying-investigation/index.html
- http://siliconangle.com/blog/2013/07/15/russia-accelerates-its-own-internet-spying-thanks-to-snowden/
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24952229
- http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/23/us-indonesia-australia-idUSBRE9AM00X20131123
- http://www.juancole.com/2013/07/killed-services-europe.html
- http://www.newsmax.com/NewsmaxTv/nsa-barack-obama-spying-angela-merkel/2013/11/04/id/534719
- http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/nsa-spying-snowden-asylum-turkey-japan-kerry-485567
- http://nsnbc.me/2013/10/31/china-and-other-asian-nations-demand-explanation-from-usa-for-spying/
- http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=62310
- http://www.dailydot.com/news/nsa-keyscore-foreign-target/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_(2012%E2%80%9316)
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo
- http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus138_Smyth-2.pdf
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Able_Archer_83
- http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/02/nato-war-game-nuclear-disaster
- http://www.wired.com/2013/05/able-archer-scare/
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_Able_Archer
- http://www.scribd.com/doc/142779988/Exercise-Able-Archer-83-After-Action-Report-1-December-1983#scribd
- http://www.newsmax.com/NewsmaxTv/nsa-barack-obama-spying-angela-merkel/2013/11/04/id/534719
- http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/nukevault/ablearcher/
- http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB427/
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Able_Archer_83
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Andropov
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/RAF_Greenham_Common
- http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/revealed-how-the-soviets-planned-go-war-americas-navy-11593
- https://uk.yahoo.com/news/anger-russian-warships-prepare-refuel-spanish-port-034400467.html
- http://news.sky.com/story/anger-as-russian-warships-prepare-to-refuel-at-spanish-port-10632639
- http://www.wishfm.net/news/uk-and-world-news/russian-warship-sails-past-spanish-port-amid-nato-row/
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/mosul-more-potentially-climactic-military-battle-072703265.html
- https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Battle_of_Mosul_(2015)
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/battle-mosul-sparks-fears-humanitarian-crisis-140015238.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/obama-mosul-difficult-fight-161059821.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/vows-defeat-america-mosul-video-155745058.html
- https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016)
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/uk-british-warplanes-bomb-support-iraqi-push-mosul-210141230.html
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-37691830
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Protection_Units
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosul
- http://www.lasvegasnow.com/news/mosul-territory-recaptured-from-isis
- http://praguemonitor.com/2016/04/04/kurdish-militia-ypg-opens-office-prague
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Syria
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35830375
- http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/nato_countries.htm
- http://www.nato.int/cps/is/natohq/topics_52044.htm
- http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/ampp3d/nato-summit-members-not-pulling-4156751
- http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_67655.htm
- http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/nato_countries.htm
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_anti-NATO_riot_in_Iceland
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Doctrine
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Truman_Doctrine
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Blockade
- http://www.nato.int/
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-34989302
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shader
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016)
- http://cdn.defenseone.com/defenseone/interstitial.html?v=2.1.1&rf=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defenseone.com%2Fthreats%2F2016%2F02%2Fbattle-mosul-has-begun%2F126304%2F
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/battle-mosul-sparks-fears-humanitarian-crisis-140015238.html
- https://www.yahoo.com/news/clinton-expands-red-states-trump-again-claims-fraud-073234330--election.html
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016)
- http://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/Docs/fy2007_greenbook.pdf
- http://www.eda.europa.eu/info-hub/publications/publication-details/national-defence-expenditure-in-2006-and-2007
- http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/nato-releases-2007-defense-spending-figures-04680/
- http://www.wsj.com/articles/nato-leaders-to-vow-to-lift-military-spending-1409832341
- http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/int/nato-spending.htm
- http://time.com/3899972/us-superpower-status-military/
- http://www.thefreedictionary.com/superpower
- https://www.casaasia.es/pdf/9200595422AM1127202862621.pdf
- http://www.gaikoforum.com/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm
- https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2009-01-01/balanced-strategy
- https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1991-02-01/unipolar-moment
- http://web.archive.org/web/20060427150630/http://www-stage.foreignaffairs.org/19990301faessay966/samuel-p-huntington/the-lonely-superpower.html
- http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm
- https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fODT-qOVoiIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=From+Colony+to+Superpower:+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+since+1776&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wMf4UovmB-nY7Aavw4C4Cg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=From%20Colony%20to%20Superpower%3A%20U.S.%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201776&f=false
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_NATO
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cod_Wars
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clashes
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_leading_to_the_Falklands_War
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986_United_States_bombing_of_Libya
- http://www.theaviationindex.com/publication/volume-1-issue-09-december-1988/article/exercise-teamwork-nato-norway-teamwork-88
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-europe-36811357
- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/15/turkey-low-flying-jets-and-gunfire-heard-in-ankara1/
- http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm
- http://edition.cnn.com/2016/07/15/world/live-blog-turkey/index.html
- http://live.aljazeera.com/Event/TURKEY_COUP_ATTEMPT
- http://blogs.wsj.com/dispatch/2016/07/15/live-updates-coup-in-turkey/
- http://www.nytimes.com/live/turkey-coup-erdogan/
- http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/russia.html
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/NATO_missile_defence_system
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile_defense_systems_by_country
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Treaty_on_Conventional_Armed_Forces_in_Europe
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/2012_Syrian%E2%80%93Turkish_border_clashes
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/North_Atlantic_Treaty
- http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Reactions_to_the_September_11_attacks
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