T-54 tank in Israel
The T-54 and T-55 tanks were a series of main battle tanks designed in the Soviet Union. The first T-54 prototype appeared in March 1945, just as the Second World War ended. The T-54 entered production in 1947 and became the main tank for armored units of the Soviet Army, armies of the Warsaw Pact countries, and others. T-54s and T-55s were involved in many of the world's armed conflicts during the late 20th and early 21st century.
The T-54/55 series eventually became the most produced tank in history. Estimated producion numbers for the series range from 86,000 to 100,000. They were replaced by the T-62, T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 in the Soviet and Russian Armies, but remain in use by up to 50 other armies worldwide, some having received sophisticated retrofitting.
Soviet tanks never directly faced their NATO Cold War adversaries in Europe. However, the T-54/55's first appearance in the west in 1960 spurred the US to develop their M60 Patton.
Development history[]
Predecessors: T-34 and T-44[]
The Soviet T-34 medium tank of the 1940s is considered to have the best balance of firepower (85mm gun), protection and mobility for its cost of any tank of its time in the world. Its development never stopped throughout teh Second World War and it continued to perform well; however, the designers could not incorporate the lastest technologies or major developments as vital tank production could not be interrupted during wartime.
In 1943, the Morozov Design Bureau resurrected the pre-war T-34M development project and created the T-44 tank. Thanks to a space-efficient torsion bar suspension, a novel transverse engine mount, and the removal of the hull machine gunner's crew position, the T-44 performed at least as well as the T-34, but with substantially superior armor. The T-44's main drawback was the small turret which remained incapable of mounting more powerful armament than its predecessor's 85mm tank gun. A tank mounting a 100mm gun was desired.
Prototypes[]
Development of the first T-54 prototype started in October 1944 at the OKB-520 design bureau, at the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183, in Nizhny Tagil. The initial design was completed in December, with a prototype completed in February 1945.
Trials conducted between March and April 1945 resulted in the new tank being commissioned for service with the Red Army as the T-54. The tank had virtually the same hull and drive train as the T-44. Major differences included thicker front armor (120mm on the upper section and 90mm on the lower section) and a newly designed driver's hatch and vision slot. The turret ring increased in diameter to 1800mm and had thicker armor.
The main armament was the 100mm D-10K cannon, with two 7.62mm GWT machine guns. The tank was powered by a new V-54 12-cylinder 38.88 litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 520 hp at 2,000 rpm with a two-stage reduction gearbox. Fuel capacity was increased to 530 liters in the internal fuel tank and 165 liters in the external fuel tank. Unlike the T-34, the external fuel tanks were connected to the fuel system. The rubber rollers on the road wheels were widened. The T-54 weighed 35.5 tonnes, making it slightly slower than the T-44 at 43.5 km/h. The road range increased to 360 km.
It was decided to moderize the tank before production started. The new tank's turret was tried on two modified T-44 tanks.
Another T-54 prototype was built in July 1945 which received the alternate designation Ob'yekt 137. The tank was equipped with a new turret armed with a 100mm LB-1 tank gun and a 7.62mm SG medium coaxial machine gun. The turret armor was thickened. The tank was armed with two 7.62mm SG-43 medium machine guns mounted inside fixed boxes on the fenders, each with 500 rounds of ammunition and operated by the driver. The turret was fitted with a 12.7mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy machine gun. The fuel capacity was increased to 545 litres in internal fuel tanks and 180 liters in external fuel tanks. Because of this, the road range remained 360 km despite the increased weight of 39.15 tonnes. This prototype went through trials between July and November 1945. Although there were numerous drawbacks which required correction and many alterations which had to be made to the vehicle's design, it was decided to begin serial production of the new vehicle and the vehicle officially entered service on 29 April 1946. It would go into production in Nizhny Tagil in 1947 and Karkiv in 1948.
T-54[]
The original T-54-1. It has a turret reminiscent of the T-34-85's, with prominent undercut shot traps. This example has the fender machine gun boxes replaced with fuel tanks.
Production of the initial series of T-54's began slowly as 1,490 modifications were made. The Red Army received a tank which was superior to WWII designes and theoretically better than the newest tanks of potential opponents. The 100mm gun fired BR-412 series full-caliber APHE ammunition which had superior penetration capability compared to the T-34 that it replaced.
The serial production version, designated T-54-1, differed from the second T-54 prototype. It had thicker hull armor. As production ramped up, quality problems emerged. Production was stopped and an improved T-54-2 version was designed. Several changes were made, and a new turret was fitted. The new dome-shaped turret with flat sides was inspired by the turret from the IS-3 heavy tank; it is similar to the later T-54 turret but with a significant overhang on the rear. It also had a shorter bustle. The fender machine guns were removed in favor of a single bow-mounted machine gun. The transmission was modernized and the track was widened to 580mm. The T-54-2 entered production in 1949 at Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod). In 1951, a second modernization was made, designated T-54-3, which had a new turret without side undercuts, as well as the new TSh-2-22 telescopic gunner's sight instead of the TSh-20. The tank featured the TDA smoke generating system. A command version was built, the T-54K, with a second R-113 radio.
T-54A and T-45B[]
A column of five T-54-2 tanks.
In the beginning of the 1950s the personnel of the OKB-520 design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 had been changed considerably. Morozov was replaced by Kolesnikow who in turn was replaced by Leonid N. Kartsev in March 1953. The first decision of the new designeer was to fit the 100mm D-10T tank gun with the STP-1 "Gorizont" vertical stabilizer. The new tank gun received the designation D-10TG and was fitted into the T-54's turret. The new tank received night vision equipment for the driver and was designated T-54A. Originally this had a small muzzle counterweight, which was later replaced with a fume extractor. It was equipped with an OPVT wading snorkel, the TSh-2A-22 telescopic sight, TVN-1 infared driver's periscope and IR headlight, a new R-113 radio, multi-stage engine air filter and radiator controls for improved engine performance, an electrical oil pump, a bilge pump, an automatic fire extinguisher and extra fuel tanks. The tank officially entered production in 1954 and service in 1955. It served as the basis for the T-54AK command tank, with additional R-112 radio set (front line tanks were equipped with the R-113 radio set), TNA-2 navigational device, ammunition load for the main gun decreased by 5 rounds and the AB-1-P/30 charging unit which was produced in small numbers. In October 1954 a T-54A tank designated as T-54M served as a test bed for new D-54 and D-54TS 100mm smoothbore guns and "Raduga" and "Molynia" stabilization systems, which were later used in the T-62. These were not completely successful, so further T-55 development continued to use the D-10 series guns. It was fitted with a V-54-6 engine developing 581 hp. It never went into production.
A new version based on the T-54A, designated T-54B, was designed in 1955. It was fitted with a new 100mm D-10T2S tank gun with STP-2 "Tsyklon" 2-plane stabilizer. It entered production in 1957. During the last four months of production the new tanks were equipped with an L-2 "Luna" infared searchlight and TPN-1-22-11 IR gunner's sight, and OU-3 IR commander's searchlight. Modern APFSDS ammunition was developed, dramatically enhancing the penetrative performance of the gun to keep it competitive with NATO armor developments. The T-54B served as the basis for the T-54BK command tank which had exactly the same additional equipment as the T-54AK command tank.
T-55[]
T-55 with front, rear, and side elevations.
Trials with nuclear weapons showed that a T-54 could survive a 2-15 kt nuclear charge at a range of more than 300 meters from the epicenter, but the crew only had a chance of surviving at 700 meters. It was decided to create an NBC protection system which would start working 0.3 seconds after detecting gamma radiation.
The task of creating a basic PAZ NBC protection system offering protection against the blast of a nuclear explosive and (radioactive) particulate filtration, but not against external gamma radiation or gas, was given to the KB-60 design bureau in Kharkov and was completed in 1956. It was decided to increase the tank's battle capabilities by changing the tank's construction and introducing new production technologies. Many of those changes were initially tested on the T-54M. The tank was fitted with the new T-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke 38.88 liter water-cooled diesel engine developing 581 hp. Greater engine power was accomplished by increasing the pressure of fuel delivery and charging degree. The designers planned to introduce a heating system for the engine compartment and MC-1 diesel fuel filter. The engine was to be started pneumatically with the use of an AK-150S charger and an electric starter. This eliminated the need for the tank to carry a tank filled with air. To allow easier access during maintenance and repairs, it was decided to change hatches over the engine compartment.
The original T-55 lacked an anti-aircraft machine gun mount.
The ammunition load for the main gun was increased from 34 to 45, with 18 shells stored in so called "wet containers" located in hull fuel tanks. The ammunition load included high explosive-fragmentation and anti-tank rounds and designers also planned to introduce the BK5M HEAT rounds which penetrated 390 mm thick armor. The TPKU commander's vision device was replaced by either the TPKUb or TPKU-2B. The gunner received a TNP-165 vision device. The loader's hatch-mounted 12.7mm DShK anti-aricraft heavy machine gun was dropped, because it was deemed worthless against high-performance jets. The tank was supposed to be equipped with a "Rosa" fire protection system. The tank had a thicker turret casting and the improved tow-plane gun stabilization system from the T-54B as well as night vision fighting equipment. To balance the weight of the new equipment, the armor of the hull was thinned slightly.
The T-55 was significantly superior to the IS-2 Heavy Tank in all respects, including the rate of fire of the gun. Despite somewhat thinner frontal turret armor it compared favorably with the IS-3, thanks to its improved antitank gun and better mobility. Heavy tanks soon fell out of favor, with only 350 IS-3s produced, and future Soviet heavy tank designs remained prototypes. The old model of highly mobile medium tanks and heavily armored heavy tanks was replaced by a new paradigm: the "main battle tank". Parallel developments in the West would produce similar results. Katsev combined all the ongoing improvements being offered, or planned, on the T-54 into one design. This entered production at Uralvagonzavod 1 January 1958 as the T-55. It was accepted for service with the Red Army on 8 May. It suffered a significant lapse in one area: there was no antiaircraft machine gun which had been present on the T-54.
After 1959 it served as a basis for the T-55K command tank which ws equipped with an additional R-112 radio set, an AB-1-P/30 fuel powered accumulator charging unit, and TPN-1-22-11 night vision sight. all this additional equipment made it necessary to decrease the ammunition load for the main gun to 37 rounds and eliminate the bow machine gun. In the beginning of the 1960s, a T-55K was experimentally fitted with an Uran TV relay apparatus for battlefield surveillance.
During the 1950s the T-55 remained a significantly smaller and lighter tank than its NATO contemporaries-the uS M48 Patton and the British Centurion-while maintaining good firepower and reliability but light armor. the 100mm D-10T tank gun has a larger bore than its Western counterparts.
T-55A[]
In 1961, development of improved NBC protection systems began. The goal was to protect the crew from fast neutrons; adequate protection against gamma radiation was provided by thick armor and a PAZ basic NBC protection system.
The POV plasticized lead antiradiation lining was developed to provide the needed protection. It was installed in the interior, requiring the driver's hatch and the comings over the turret hatchs to be noticeably enlarged. This liner had the added benefit of protecting the crew from fragments of penetrated armor.
The tank was equipped with a full PAZ/FVU chemical filtration system. The coaxial 7.62mm SGMT machine gun was replaced by a 7.62mm PKT machine gun. The hull was lengthened from 6.04 m to 6.2 m. The hull machine gun was removed, making space for six more main gun rounds. These changes increased the vehicle's weight to 38 tonnes.
Description[]
The T-54, seen here at the Panzermuseum Thun, can be recognized by the dome-shaped ventilatory on the turret roof, which the T-55 lacks.
Like many post-WWII tanks, the T-54 and T-55 have a conventional layout with fighting compartment in the front, engine compartment in the rear, and a dome-shaped turret in the center of the hull. The driver's hatch is on the front left of the hull roof. The commander is seated on the left, with the gunner to his front and the loader on the right. The tank's suspension has the drive sprocket at the rear, and dead track. Engine exhaust is on the left fender. There is a prominent gap between the first and second road wheel pairs, a distinguishing feature from the T-62, which has progressively larger spaces between road wheels to the rear.
The T-54 and T-55 tanks are outwardly very similar and difficult to distinguish visually. Many T-54s were also updated to T-55 standards, so the distinction is often downplayed with the collective name T-54/55. Soviet tanks were factory-overhauled every 7,000 km and often given minor technology updates. Many states have added or modified the tank's equipment; India, for example, affixed fake fume extractors to its T-54s and T-55s so that its gunners wouldn't confuse them with Pakistani Type 59s.
The older T-54 can be distinguished from the T-55 by a dome-shaped ventilator on the front right of the turret and a driver-operated SGMT 7.62mm machine gun mounted to fire through a tiny hole in the center of the hull's front. Early T-54s lacked a gun fume extractor, had an undercut at the turret's rear, and a distinctive "pig snout" mantlet.
Advantages and drawbacks[]
The T-54/55 tanks are mechanically simple and robust. They are very simple to operate compared to Western tanks, and don't require a high level of training or education in their crew members. The T-54/55 is a relatively small main battle tank, presenting a smaller target for its opponents to hit. The tanks have good mobility thanks to their relatively light weight (which permits easy transport by rail or flatbed truck, and allows crossing of lighter bridges), wide tracks, a good cold-weather-startup system, and a snorkel which allows river crossings. The T-54/55 tanks have together been manufactured in the tens of thousands, and many still remain in reserve, or even in frontline use among lower-technology fighing forces. Abundance and age together make these tanks cheap and easy to produce. While the T-54/55 is not a match for a modern main battle tank, armor and ammunition upgrades can dramatically improve the old vehicle's performance to the point that it cannot be dismissed on the battlefield.
A disabled Iraqi T-55 tank lies among other wreckage along the Highway of Death in April 1991.
Nevertheless, T-54/55 tanks have many serious defects. Small size is achieved at the expense of interior space and crew comforts, which is a common trait of most Russian tanks. This causes practical difficulties, as it constrains the physical movements of the crew and slows operation of controls and equipment. Israelis who crewed T-54/55s captured during the 1967 and 1973 wars constantly complained about this, and it remains a problem that cannot be remedied by any upgrades. However, height limits were set for any recruit joining the tankers in the Soviet Army, hence the low average height of Soviet tankers. This is believed to completely solve the low silhouette issue, whereas other armies may not include crew member height limits as standards. The low turret profile of the tanks prevents them from depressing their main guns more than 5 degrees (the average for Western tanks is 10 degrees), which limits the ability to cover terrain by fire from a hull-down position on a reverse slope. While both tanks have stabilized guns, in practice they can only fire accurately when the vehicle is at rest. It main disadvantage is its light armor. While it had strong armor that could withstand frontal hits from bazooka, PIAT, RPG-2, and most tank guns of that era, its armor became obsolete within 20 years of its introduction. Because it was designed for "traditional warfare", its side and rear armor was two or three times thinner than on the front. In Vietnam, its side armor proved very vulnerable to LAW rockets. TOW missiles, and the M41 Walker Bulldog light tank with its 76mm cannon. As in most tanks of that generation, the internal ammunition supply is not shielded, increasing the odds that any enemy penetration of the fighting compartment could cause a catastrophic secondary explosion. The original T-54/55 tanks are unlikely to be successful against modern opponents without the benefit of upgrades.
The T-54 is especially defective: it lacks NBC protection, a revolving turret floor (which complicates the crew's operations), and early models lacked gun stabilization. All of these problems were corrected on the T-55 tank, which is otherwise identical to the T-54.
Production history[]
USSR[]
Polish T-54AMs
T-54-1 production was slow at first as only 3 vehicles were built in 1946 and 22 in 1947. 285 T-54-1 tanks were built in 1948 by Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183; by then it had completely replaced T-44 production. Production was stopped because of a low level of production quality and frequent breakdowns. The T-54-2 entered production in 1949 at Uralvagonzavod, which produced 423 tanks by the end of 1950. It replaced the T-34 in production at the Omsk Factory No. 183 in 1950. In 1951 over 800 T-54-2 tanks were produced. The T-54-2 remained in production until 1952. The T-54A was produced between 1955 and 1957. The T-54B was produced between 1957 and April 1959. The T-55 was produced between 1958 and 1962.
Poland[]
Poland produced 3,000 T-54, T-54A, T-54AD and T-54AM between 1956 and 1964 and 7,000 T-55, T-55L, T-55AD-1 and T-55AD-2
Czechoslovakia[]
Czechoslovakia produced 2,700 T-54A, T-54AM, T-54AK, T-54AMK betweeen 1957 and 1966 and 8,300 T-55 and T-55A between 1964 and 1983.
Service history[]
Soviet Union to Russian Federation[]
T-55A on the streets of Poland during Martial Law in Poland.
The T-54/55 and T-62 were the two most common tanks in Soviet inventory-in the mid 1970s the two tank types together comprised approximately 85% of the Soviet Army's tanks.
T-54 tanks served in the 1956 invasion of Hungary, and a few were knocked out by Molotov cocktails and Hungarian antitank guns. The revolutionaries delivered one captured T-54A to the British Embassy in Budapest, the analysis of which spurred the development of the Royal Ordnance L7 tank gun. The T-62 and T-55 are now mostly in reserve status; Russian active-duty units mainly use the T-80 and T-72, with a smaller number of T-90 tanks in service.
Middle East[]
An abandoned South Lebanese Army Tiran-5 in South Lebanon.
During the 1967 Six-Day War, US-supplied M48 Patton tanks, Centurion tanks, and even upgraded WWII era Sherman tanks, faced T-55s. This mix of Israeli tanks, combined with superior planning of operations and superior airpower, proved to be more than capable of dealing with the T-54/55 series.
By the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the T-54A and T-55's gun was starting to lose its competitive effectiveness relative to the 105mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun mounted in Israeli Centurion Mk V and M60A1 tanks. Israel captured many T-55s from Syria and mostly Egypt in 1967, and kept some of them in service. They were upgraded with a 105mm NATO-standard L7 or M68, a US version of the L7, replacing the old Soviet 100mm D-10, and a General Motors diesel replacing the original Soviet diesel engine. The Israelis designated these Tiran-5 medium tanks, and they were used by reserve units until the early 1990s. Most of these were then sold to assorted Third World countries, some of them in Latin America, and the rest were heavily modified, converted into the Achzarit heavy armored personnel carrier.
Vietnam War[]
A destroyed Iraqi T-55 and supply truck, painted with graffiti by Coalition troops, along the highway between Kuwait City and Basra, Iraq, following the retreat of Iraqi forces from Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm.
In the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese NVA used T-54s against the South Vietnamese ARVN and US forces.
The NVA and ARVN engaged each other for the first time during Operation Lam Son 719, in February 1971. During that battle, 17 M41 light tanks of the ARVN 1st Armored Brigade destroyed 22 NVA tanks, 6 T-54 and 16 PT-76, at no loss to themselves.
On Easter Sunday, 2 April 1972, the newly activated ARVN 20th Tank Regiment, consisting of approximately 57 M48A3 Patton tanks received reports of a large NVA tank column moving towards Dong Ha (the largest Vietnamese city near the DMZ at the 17th parallel). At about noon, the crewmen of the ARVN 1st Squadron observed enemy armor moving south along highway 1 towards Dong Ha, and concealed their tanks on high ground with a good vantage point. Waiting for the NVA column to close to between 2,500 and 3,000 meters, the 90mm guns of the Pattons opened fire, quickly destroying nine PT-76 light tanks and two T-54 medium tanks. The remaining NVA armor, unable to see their enemy, turned about and withdrew.
On 9 April 1972, all three squadrons of the 20th Tank Regiment fought enemy armor, firing upon tanks accompanied by infantry, again while occupying the high ground. The Pattons opened fire at approximately 2,800 meters. A few answering shots from the T-54s fell short, and the NVA tanks began to scatter. By the end of the day, the 20th had destroyed 16 T-54s and captured one Type 59, at no loss to themselves.
NVA armor units equipped with the T-54 tank achieved one of their greatest victories in April 1972, when the NVa 203rd Armored Regiment attacked teh ARVN 22nd Infantry Division at Tan Canh, which dominated a main route into the city of Kontum. After a two-day artillery barrage, eighteen T-54 tanks from the 203rd Regiment attacked the 22rd Division at dawn from two directions, breaking the ARVN unit, which quickly abandoned its positions. T-54 tank No. 377 had destroyed seven M41s before itself had been destroyed by an M72 LAW rocket launcher.
On 30 April 1975, T-54 tank No. 390 of the NVA 203rd Armored Regiment went crashing through the gates of the South Vietnamese presidential palace, signalling the end of the war..
Other conflicts[]
Civilians atop a T-55 in Libya, 2011.
T-54 tanks were used during the Cambodian civil war. During the Ugandan-Tanzanian War of 1978-79, Libya sent an expeditionary force to aid Uganda dictator Idi Amin which included a few dozen T-54/55 tanks. Some of these tanks saw action against Tanzanian forces.
Polish T-55L tanks were also deployed during Martial Law in Poland to intimidate the population and suppress overt displays against the Communist government.
The T-54/T-55 saw action against South African and UNITA forces during the war in Angola. This Soviet tank's reliability and ruggedness matched the demanding African operational environment. However, several numbers of T-54/T-55 tanks were lost to South African Olifant MBTs, artillery fire, and wire-guided missiles in several engagements.
Macedonian Army T-55 tank and its crew in 2001.
The T-55 was the most numerous tank of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). It was the mainstay of armored combat units during the Yugoslav Wars, where it proved vulnerable to infantry equipped with anti-tank rockets and to misemployment in urban areas and unfriendly terrain. But there were too many of them in service for them to be replaced. During the battle of Vukovar, where the JNA grouped a large part of its tank forces, a number was destroyed, almost exclusively by infantry-carried anti-tank weapons. The T-55 tank remained the most common tank in the armies of the Yugoslavian successor states until recently, and it was the most used tank by all armies during the wars. T-55s were used by Yugoslavia and Macedonia in Kosovo and the 2001 Macedonia conflict.
The Soviet Union sold thousands of T-55 tanks to both Iran and Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988 (known as the Persian Gulf War prior to 1991). Some saw action during Operation Desert Storm, in Iraq and Kuwait in January/February 1991, and during the 2003 US/UK invasion of Iraq.
The T-55 has been used by Ethiopia in conflict with the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia.
The Sri Lankan army used T-55s in the Sri Lankan Civil War, which concluded in May 2009, against the LTTE (Tamil Tigers). A T-55 belonging to the LTTE was destroyed on 6 April 2009; according to media reports, it was a model produced in Czechoslovakia and obtained by the LTTE in 2001 or 2002.
T-55 tanks have seen use on both sides of the 2011 Libyan civil war, with anti-Gaddafi forces either stealing them or having them contributed by defecting members of the Libyan Army.